How Many Books Are in the Old Testament? A Complete Guide

The number of books in the Old Testament varies across Jewish, Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox traditions. While the Jewish Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) consists of 24 books, Protestants count 39, and Catholics recognize 46, including the Deuterocanonical books. Understanding these differences requires examining how religious traditions have shaped the biblical canon over centuries. In this guide, we'll break down the book count by tradition, explain their organization, and uncover the historical development of the Old Testament.

## The Traditional Count of Old Testament Books

The Old Testament, as recognized by various religious traditions, contains a set number of books depending on the specific canon followed. The traditional count of Old Testament books varies between Jewish and Christian traditions, leading to differences in the way the scriptures are organized and enumerated.

The Jewish Canon: 24 Books

In Jewish tradition, the Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, consists of 24 books. These books are categorized into three main divisions:

1. Torah (The Law) – Also known as the Pentateuch, it includes the first five books:

   • Genesis
   • Exodus
   • Leviticus
   • Numbers
   • Deuteronomy

2. Nevi'im (The Prophets) – These books are further divided into the Former and Latter Prophets:

   • Former Prophets: Joshua, Judges, Samuel (1 & 2 combined), Kings (1 & 2 combined)
   • Latter Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and The Twelve (Minor Prophets combined as one book)

3. Ketuvim (The Writings) – This section contains poetic, wisdom, and historical writings:

• Psalms, Proverbs, Job
• The Five Scrolls: Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther
• Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah (combined as one book), Chronicles (1 & 2 combined)

Although the Jewish Bible contains the same content as the Protestant Old Testament, it counts the books differently due to the combination of certain texts into single volumes.

The Protestant Old Testament: 39 Books

The Protestant Old Testament includes 39 books, which are the same in content as the Jewish Tanakh but arranged and counted differently. The primary reason for the numerical difference is the division of certain books that are combined in the Jewish tradition. For example, books such as Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles are split into two separate books each, and Ezra-Nehemiah is counted as two books instead of one.

The books are categorized into four main sections:

1. The Pentateuch (The Law) – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy
2. The Historical Books – Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 & 2 Samuel, 1 & 2 Kings, 1 & 2 Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther
3. The Wisdom Literature – Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon
4. The Prophets – Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the 12 Minor Prophets (each counted separately)

The Catholic Old Testament: 46 Books

The Catholic Old Testament contains 46 books, including additional texts that are not found in the Protestant canon. These additional books, known as the Deuterocanonical books, were included in the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures, and were affirmed by the Catholic Church.

Along with the 39 books recognized by Protestants, the Catholic Old Testament includes:

• Tobit
• Judith
• Wisdom
• Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)
• Baruch
• 1 & 2 Maccabees
• Additional sections in Esther and Daniel

The Eastern Orthodox Old Testament

The Eastern Orthodox Church generally follows the Septuagint and includes even more books than the Catholic canon. While the exact number may vary by tradition, additional books such as 1 Esdras, 3 Maccabees, and the Prayer of Manasseh are often included.

Summary of Differences

These variations in the traditional count of the Old Testament books reflect historical, theological, and textual developments across different religious traditions.

Organization and Structure

The Old Testament is a carefully organized collection of texts that serves as a cornerstone for both Judaism and Christianity. Its structure is not arbitrary but reflects distinct theological, literary, and historical frameworks. The organization of the Old Testament varies slightly depending on the religious tradition, but it is typically divided into several major sections that highlight its diverse content and purposes.

Number of Books in the Old Testament

The exact number of books in the Old Testament depends on the tradition and version of the Bible being referenced. In the Protestant tradition, the Old Testament consists of 39 books, while in the Catholic tradition, it includes 46 books due to the inclusion of additional texts known as the Deuterocanonical books. In the Jewish Tanakh, the same content as the Protestant Old Testament is present, but it is arranged into 24 books by combining some texts into single volumes (e.g., 1 and 2 Kings are combined into one book).

Major Divisions of the Old Testament

The Old Testament is typically divided into three major sections, based on both content and function:

1. The Torah (The Law)

Known as the Pentateuch in Christian traditions, the Torah is the foundational section of the Old Testament. It comprises the first five books:

• Genesis
• Exodus
• Leviticus
• Numbers
• Deuteronomy

These books focus on the creation of the world, the origins of humanity, the covenant between God and Israel, and the laws given to Moses. The Torah is central to Jewish identity and theology and plays a crucial role in Christian interpretation of salvation history.

2. The Prophets

This section is divided into the Former Prophets and the Latter Prophets:

• Former Prophets: Joshua, Judges, Samuel (1 & 2 combined), and Kings (1 & 2 combined). These books recount the history of Israel from the conquest of Canaan to the Babylonian exile.
• Latter Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets (treated as one book in the Hebrew tradition). These texts primarily contain prophetic messages, warnings, and promises of restoration.

The Prophets emphasize themes of justice, covenant faithfulness, and hope for redemption, making them essential for understanding the Old Testament’s theological trajectory.

3. The Writings (Ketuvim)

The Writings are a diverse collection of texts that include poetry, wisdom literature, and historical accounts. They include:

• Psalms
• Proverbs
• Job
• The Five Scrolls (Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther)
• Daniel
• Ezra-Nehemiah (treated as one book in the Hebrew tradition)
• Chronicles (1 & 2 combined)

This section captures the emotional, philosophical, and reflective dimensions of faith, addressing the human experience of God through worship, suffering, and wisdom.

Literary Genres in the Old Testament

The Old Testament contains a wide array of literary genres, each contributing to its depth and complexity:

• Historical Narrative: Found in Genesis, Exodus, and the historical books (e.g., Kings, Chronicles).
• Law Codes: Detailed in Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
• Poetry and Hymns: Prominent in Psalms and Song of Songs.
• Wisdom Literature: Exemplified by Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job.
• Prophetic Oracles: Found in Isaiah, Jeremiah, and the Minor Prophets.
• Apocalyptic Literature: Seen in parts of Daniel.

This diversity allows the Old Testament to address a wide range of theological and existential questions, making it a rich and multilayered text.

Key Narratives and Themes

The Old Testament is home to some of the most well-known stories and theological motifs in religious history. Key narratives include:

• The Creation and Fall: The story of Adam and Eve in Genesis.
• The Exodus: Israel’s liberation from Egypt and journey to the Promised Land.
• The Covenant: God’s promises to Abraham, Moses, and David.
• The Exile and Return: Israel’s Babylonian exile and subsequent restoration.

These narratives are woven together to form a coherent story of God’s relationship with humanity and the unfolding of His divine plan.

In summary, the organization and structure of the Old Testament reflect its role as a foundational text for faith, history, and theology. Understanding its divisions, genres, and key themes is essential for interpreting its enduring message.

Historical Development of the Canon

Early Oral Traditions and Written Texts

The development of the Old Testament canon began with oral traditions passed down through generations. Stories, laws, and historical accounts were preserved by word of mouth before being committed to writing. The earliest written texts likely emerged during the time of the Israelite monarchy (circa 10th–6th centuries BCE), with scribes recording laws, prophecies, and historical narratives.

Formation of the Hebrew Bible

The Hebrew Bible, or Tanakh, consists of three main divisions: the Torah (Law), the Nevi'im (Prophets), and the Ketuvim (Writings). These texts were written over a period of centuries, with the Torah traditionally attributed to Moses, though modern scholarship suggests it was compiled from multiple sources between the 10th and 5th centuries BCE. The prophetic books and writings followed, with some texts like the Psalms and Proverbs evolving over time.

The Role of the Septuagint

By the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, Jewish scholars in Alexandria translated the Hebrew scriptures into Greek, producing the Septuagint (LXX). This version included additional books, later known as the Deuterocanonical books, which were not part of the Hebrew canon but were accepted by Greek-speaking Jewish communities and later by early Christians.

Canonization Process in Judaism

The process of formally recognizing the Hebrew Bible as authoritative occurred over several centuries. By the 2nd century CE, Jewish scholars had largely settled on the 24 books of the Hebrew Bible, equivalent to the 39 books found in the Protestant Old Testament. The Council of Jamnia (circa 90 CE) is often cited as a key moment in this process, though its role is debated among scholars.

Christian Adoption and Variations

Early Christians adopted the Jewish scriptures, often relying on the Septuagint, which led to differences in Old Testament canons among Christian traditions. The Catholic Church included the Deuterocanonical books, while Protestant reformers in the 16th century rejected them, aligning their Old Testament with the Hebrew Bible. The Eastern Orthodox Church, however, retained additional writings based on the Septuagint tradition.

Modern Canonical Differences

Today, different Christian traditions recognize varying Old Testament canons:

• Protestant Bibles contain 39 books, based on the Hebrew Bible.
• Catholic Bibles include 46 books, incorporating the Deuterocanonical books.
• Eastern Orthodox Bibles feature additional texts, such as 3 Maccabees and Psalm 151.
• Ethiopian Orthodox Bibles have an even broader canon, including books like Enoch and Jubilees.

The historical development of the Old Testament canon reflects the diverse religious, cultural, and linguistic contexts in which these sacred texts were preserved and transmitted.

Content Categories and Book Types

The Old Testament is a diverse and complex collection of texts that vary in literary style, historical context, and theological purpose. Traditionally, these books are categorized into distinct sections based on their content and function within the religious canon. Understanding these classifications provides insight into the structure and themes of the Old Testament.

Major Divisions of the Old Testament

The Old Testament is generally divided into three main sections:

1. The Torah (Pentateuch) – The first five books, traditionally attributed to Moses, serve as the foundation of Jewish law and narrative history.
2. The Prophets (Nevi'im) – These books contain historical accounts and prophetic messages that address Israel's relationship with God.
3. The Writings (Ketuvim) – A diverse collection that includes poetry, wisdom literature, and historical records.

Each of these divisions plays a unique role in shaping the theological and historical framework of the Old Testament.

The Torah (Pentateuch)

The Torah, also known as the Pentateuch, consists of the following five books:

• Genesis – A narrative of creation, early humanity, and the patriarchs.
• Exodus – The story of Israel’s liberation from Egypt and the establishment of the Mosaic covenant.
• Leviticus – Laws and rituals governing Israelite worship and daily life.
• Numbers – A historical account of Israel’s journey through the wilderness.
• Deuteronomy – A series of speeches by Moses reiterating the law before entering the Promised Land.

These books form the legal and theological foundation of both Judaism and Christianity.

The Prophets (Nevi'im)

The Prophets are divided into two subcategories:

• Former Prophets – Historical books that recount Israel’s history from the conquest of Canaan to the Babylonian exile.

  • Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2 Samuel, 1 & 2 Kings

• Latter Prophets – Books containing the messages of prophets addressing religious, social, and political issues.

  • Major Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, Daniel (included in some traditions)
  • Minor Prophets (The Twelve): Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi

These books emphasize God's covenant relationship with Israel and His call to faithfulness.

The Writings (Ketuvim)

The Writings include a variety of literary genres:

• Poetic and Wisdom Literature – Psalms, Proverbs, Job
• Five Scrolls (Megillot) – Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther
• Historical Books – Ezra, Nehemiah, 1 & 2 Chronicles
• Apocalyptic Literature (included in certain traditions) – Daniel

This section provides theological reflection, wisdom teachings, and historical narratives that complement the themes of the Torah and Prophets.

Differences in Old Testament Canons

The number of books in the Old Testament varies between religious traditions:

• Protestant Old Testament – 39 books, following the Hebrew Bible arrangement.
• Catholic Old Testament – 46 books, including additional texts known as the Deuterocanonical books (e.g., Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, 1 & 2 Maccabees).
• Eastern Orthodox Old Testament – Includes even more books, such as 3 Maccabees and Psalm 151.

These differences stem from historical debates over canon formation and the acceptance of certain texts in early Christian and Jewish traditions.

Understanding the content categories and book types of the Old Testament is essential for grasping its theological significance, historical development, and impact on religious thought.

Modern Understanding and Usage

Contemporary Biblical Studies and Scholarship

In modern times, the Old Testament remains a subject of extensive study and interpretation. Scholars utilize historical, literary, and theological approaches to analyze its texts. Critical methods such as source criticism, form criticism, and redaction criticism help scholars understand how the Old Testament was compiled and edited over time. Additionally, advancements in archaeology continue to provide insights into the historical context of the biblical narratives.

Variations in the Old Testament Canon

Different religious traditions recognize varying numbers of books in the Old Testament. The Protestant Old Testament contains 39 books, while the Catholic tradition includes additional books, known as the Deuterocanonical books, bringing the total to 46. The Eastern Orthodox Church recognizes even more texts. These variations stem from differences in the textual traditions, particularly between the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) and the Greek Septuagint.

Digital Resources and Accessibility

The rise of digital technology has made Old Testament studies more accessible than ever. Online platforms, such as Bible study apps and digital libraries, provide access to multiple translations, commentaries, and scholarly resources. The integration of artificial intelligence and digital humanities tools also allows for deeper linguistic and textual analysis.

The Old Testament in Modern Theology

The Old Testament continues to shape contemporary theology and religious practice. It is frequently referenced in sermons, theological discussions, and ethical debates. Many Christian denominations emphasize its connection to the New Testament, particularly in understanding prophecy and the foreshadowing of Jesus Christ. Additionally, Jewish traditions continue to study the Hebrew Bible as the foundation of religious law and spiritual life.

Relevance in Modern Society

Beyond religious circles, the Old Testament influences modern society in literature, law, and ethics. Themes such as justice, morality, and human suffering are still relevant today. Its narratives are frequently referenced in political discourse, artistic expressions, and philosophical discussions, demonstrating its enduring impact across cultures and belief systems.

The number of books in the Old Testament is determined by the tradition recognizing them, ranging from 24 in the Jewish Bible to upwards of 49 in the Eastern Orthodox canon. These differences arose due to historical, theological, and textual developments over centuries. Regardless of the specific count, the Old Testament remains foundational for both Judaism and Christianity, shaping spiritual beliefs, historical narratives, and religious practices worldwide.